
Regarding the acetaminophen question and epistemology, I think another dimension that warrants consideration is publication bias. A major problem is that studies that find null or negative findings don’t even get published. Prada et al. (2025) even mention this as a limitation of their evidence synthesis on the topic. Therefore if findings of ignored studies often never make it to clinical evidence synthesis investigations or public discourse, could recognition of such help to develop a shared epistemological framework for evaluating medical information in public knowledge commons like the internet and social media? Reference: Prada, D., Ritz, B., Bauer, A.Z. et al. Evaluation of the evidence on acetaminophen use and neurodevelopmental disorders using the Navigation Guide methodology. Environ Health 24, 56 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-025-01208-0